In the Course of our work , sometimes we might need to identify unknown samples. One of the best way thus far in fulfilling this was the use of DSC, Differential scanning calorimetry.
Differential scanning calorimetry or DSC is a thermoanalytical technique in which the difference in the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of a sample and reference is measured as a function of temperature. Both the sample and reference are maintained at nearly the same temperature throughout the experiment. Generally, the temperature program for a DSC analysis is designed such that the sample holder temperature increases linearly as a function of time. The reference sample should have a well-defined heat capacity over the range of temperatures to be scanned.
Wikipedia provide a very in depth explaination regarding this subject: the link can be sort at the following:
DSC
Wednesday, May 19, 2010
Tuesday, May 11, 2010
Quality Control for Glass
There is a series of test that undergoes to ensure solar glass can perfomed to spec
-Light transmittance Test
-impact Test
-Boil Test
-Loading Test
-Bow Measurement
-Dimension Measurement
-Diagonal Line measurement
-Arch Measurement
-Fragment measurement
-surface checking
-resistance measurement
Quality Control Specification and Picture
-Light transmittance Test
-impact Test
-Boil Test
-Loading Test
-Bow Measurement
-Dimension Measurement
-Diagonal Line measurement
-Arch Measurement
-Fragment measurement
-surface checking
-resistance measurement
Quality Control Specification and Picture
Normal CLear Float Glass
Common Clear Float Tempered Glass
What is Clear Float Tempered/Toughened Glass?
Clear float glass, it is molten glass floats on the tin and
spreads out thus seeking a controlled level. Control heating will then allows the glass to flow and form a float ribbon of uniform thickness while on the tin bath. Glass is then slowlycooled and fed off from the molten tin into the annealing lehr for further cooling.
Clear float tempered/toughened glass is float glass that has been processed through a tempering oven to
increase its strength to resist impact, mechanical loads and thermal
stress breakage.
Glass is heat-treated by heating annealed glass to a temperature of approximately 1,150°F (621°C), then rapidly cooling it. The glass is cooled by a carefully controlled airflow (also known as quenching), which uniformly cools all glass surfaces simultaneously.
It is approximately four times stronger than annealed glass of the same thickness and configuration. When it is broken, tempered glass fractures into small fragments that reduce the probability of serious injury as compared to annealed glass.
Characteristics
It is smooth without any pattern on glass surface.
The energy transmittance about 88%
It is of less cost compare to low iron glass
It is a little green seen from edges.
Where to use it?
· Substrate of semiconductor of thin film photovoltaic technology, including amorphous silicon (aSi), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium diselenide (CIS).
· Thermal Collector.
What is Clear Float Tempered/Toughened Glass?
Clear float glass, it is molten glass floats on the tin and
spreads out thus seeking a controlled level. Control heating will then allows the glass to flow and form a float ribbon of uniform thickness while on the tin bath. Glass is then slowlycooled and fed off from the molten tin into the annealing lehr for further cooling.
Clear float tempered/toughened glass is float glass that has been processed through a tempering oven to
increase its strength to resist impact, mechanical loads and thermal
stress breakage.
Glass is heat-treated by heating annealed glass to a temperature of approximately 1,150°F (621°C), then rapidly cooling it. The glass is cooled by a carefully controlled airflow (also known as quenching), which uniformly cools all glass surfaces simultaneously.
It is approximately four times stronger than annealed glass of the same thickness and configuration. When it is broken, tempered glass fractures into small fragments that reduce the probability of serious injury as compared to annealed glass.
Characteristics
It is smooth without any pattern on glass surface.
The energy transmittance about 88%
It is of less cost compare to low iron glass
It is a little green seen from edges.
Where to use it?
· Substrate of semiconductor of thin film photovoltaic technology, including amorphous silicon (aSi), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium diselenide (CIS).
· Thermal Collector.
Low Iron Float Glass/ Ultra Clear glass
What is Low Iron Float Tempered Glass?
Low iron float glass also named Ultra-clear glass. It is made by matured technical operation norm. It looks just like colorless crystal with higher transmittance.
Compare to common float glass, it is with outstanding characteristics of the high solar lights transmittance, the low reflectance, the low iron, the high mechanical strength and the high flatness, it is the ideal encapsulation material for thin solar modules and thermal collectors.
Low iron float tempered glass is low iron float glass that
has been processed through a tempering oven to increase its strength to resist impact, mechanical loads and thermal stress breakage. It is approximately four times stronger than annealed glass of the same thickness and configuration. When it is broken, tempered glass fractures into small fragments that reduce the probability of serious injury as compared to annealed glass.
Characteristics
It is of higher energy transmittance about 91%
It is expensive compare to clear float glass
It is highly smooth without patterned which more suitable for thin film solar modules and thermal collectors.
Where to use it?
· Front cover glass of of thin film photovoltaic technology, including amorphous silicon (aSi), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium diselenide (CIS).
· Front cover glass of thermal collectors.
Low iron float glass also named Ultra-clear glass. It is made by matured technical operation norm. It looks just like colorless crystal with higher transmittance.
Compare to common float glass, it is with outstanding characteristics of the high solar lights transmittance, the low reflectance, the low iron, the high mechanical strength and the high flatness, it is the ideal encapsulation material for thin solar modules and thermal collectors.
Low iron float tempered glass is low iron float glass that
has been processed through a tempering oven to increase its strength to resist impact, mechanical loads and thermal stress breakage. It is approximately four times stronger than annealed glass of the same thickness and configuration. When it is broken, tempered glass fractures into small fragments that reduce the probability of serious injury as compared to annealed glass.
Characteristics
It is of higher energy transmittance about 91%
It is expensive compare to clear float glass
It is highly smooth without patterned which more suitable for thin film solar modules and thermal collectors.
Where to use it?
· Front cover glass of of thin film photovoltaic technology, including amorphous silicon (aSi), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium diselenide (CIS).
· Front cover glass of thermal collectors.
Low Iron Pattered Glass
Low Iron Patterned Tempered Glass
What is Low Iron Patterned Tempered Glass?
Low iron patterned glass, also called low iron figured glass or low iron rolled glass or low iron textured glass, is made by a continuous roll-impressed process. Low iron patterned glass with excellent performance on high solar transmittance, low absorbance, low reflectance and low iron content, is the ideal encapsulationmaterial for solar thermal and photovoltaic modules.Low iron patterned tempered glass is low ironpatternedglass that has been processed through a
tempering ovento increase its strength to resist impact, mechanical loads and thermal stress breakage. Glass is heat-treated by heating annealed glass to a temperature of approximately 1,150°F (621°C), then rapidly cooling it. The glass is cooled by a carefully controlled airflow (also known as quenching), which uniformly cools all glass surfaces simultaneously.
It is approximately four times stronger than annealed glass of the same thickness and configuration. When it is broken, tempered glass fractures into small fragments that reduce the probability of serious injury as compared to annealed glass.
Specifications and Properties of Raw Glass:
1、Glass Thickness：3.2m &4mm；
2、Tolerance of thickness：±0.15mm
3、Max. Size：1650mm×2440mm
4、Light transmittance（3.2mm）：≥91.6%
5、Content Iron：≤150ppmFe2O3
6、Specific Heat at 32° -212°F (0° -100°C)：0.2
7、Density：2.5g/cc
8、(Young's) Modulus of Elasticity ：73GPa
9、Tensile Strength ：42 MPa
10、Hemispherical Emissivity at 0° -150° (-18° -66°C)：0.84
11、Expansion Coefficient ：9.03x10-6/℃
12、Softening Point：720 ℃
13、Annealing Point：550 ℃
14、Strain Point：500 ℃
Characteristics
It is of higher energy transmittance about 91.5%
It is expensive compare to clear float glass
It has two types of surface patterns, prismatic/matt-finished (SM) and matt-finished/matt-finished (MM).
Series of low iron patterned glass:
· Raw glass without tempered
· Tempered with designed sizes
Where to use it?
· Front cover glass of Crystalline silicon (cSi) including monocrystalline solar panels, polycrystalline solar panels.
What is Low Iron Patterned Tempered Glass?
Low iron patterned glass, also called low iron figured glass or low iron rolled glass or low iron textured glass, is made by a continuous roll-impressed process. Low iron patterned glass with excellent performance on high solar transmittance, low absorbance, low reflectance and low iron content, is the ideal encapsulationmaterial for solar thermal and photovoltaic modules.Low iron patterned tempered glass is low ironpatternedglass that has been processed through a
tempering ovento increase its strength to resist impact, mechanical loads and thermal stress breakage. Glass is heat-treated by heating annealed glass to a temperature of approximately 1,150°F (621°C), then rapidly cooling it. The glass is cooled by a carefully controlled airflow (also known as quenching), which uniformly cools all glass surfaces simultaneously.
It is approximately four times stronger than annealed glass of the same thickness and configuration. When it is broken, tempered glass fractures into small fragments that reduce the probability of serious injury as compared to annealed glass.
Specifications and Properties of Raw Glass:
1、Glass Thickness：3.2m &4mm；
2、Tolerance of thickness：±0.15mm
3、Max. Size：1650mm×2440mm
4、Light transmittance（3.2mm）：≥91.6%
5、Content Iron：≤150ppmFe2O3
6、Specific Heat at 32° -212°F (0° -100°C)：0.2
7、Density：2.5g/cc
8、(Young's) Modulus of Elasticity ：73GPa
9、Tensile Strength ：42 MPa
10、Hemispherical Emissivity at 0° -150° (-18° -66°C)：0.84
11、Expansion Coefficient ：9.03x10-6/℃
12、Softening Point：720 ℃
13、Annealing Point：550 ℃
14、Strain Point：500 ℃
Characteristics
It is of higher energy transmittance about 91.5%
It is expensive compare to clear float glass
It has two types of surface patterns, prismatic/matt-finished (SM) and matt-finished/matt-finished (MM).
Series of low iron patterned glass:
· Raw glass without tempered
· Tempered with designed sizes
Where to use it?
· Front cover glass of Crystalline silicon (cSi) including monocrystalline solar panels, polycrystalline solar panels.
Wednesday, April 14, 2010
Materials needed for Testing
In RED , material needed , always revolved around aluminium, glass, stainless steel.
Thus i will cater a post space for this matter.
Aluminium:
Al 6061
Al 6061 Composition, Properties, Temper and Applications of 6061 Aluminium
Al 2024
Thus i will cater a post space for this matter.
Aluminium:
Al 6061
Al 6061 Composition, Properties, Temper and Applications of 6061 Aluminium
Al 2024
Tuesday, April 13, 2010
Photovoltaic Encapsulant Optical Property Study
All Photovoltaic Study of glass panel should be discuss here:
Photovoltaic Encapsulant Optical Property Study
This paper will present a technical comparison of several incumbent and candidate encapsulants that can be used for thin-film photovoltaic module manufacturing. We will focus on moisture ingress behavior and mechanical properties of several polymers. Most thin-film technologies are moisture sensitive; meaning, they can experience decreases in power output as a result of moisture ingress. One of the most important tests for this is a "damp heat" test defined by IEC 61646, where a module is placed for a period of time at 85oC and 85% relative humidity. Moisture ingress data measured in from the sides of glass-glass laminates after 1000 to 5000 hours of damp heat testing will be discussed. Resulting data for PVB, EVA and several ionomer-based encapsulants (commercial and experimental ionomers) will be compared.
Besides its role in protecting a cell from moisture and other environmental factors, an encapsulant also contributes to mechanical strength in a module. Finite Element Modeling (FEM) can be used to calculate the strength behavior of modules made with alternative encapsulants, under mechanical wind load test conditions (2.4 kPa uniform pressure for 1 hour). FEM modeling using a theoretical module will be discussed, where the variables are:
type of encapsulant (we will discuss all encapsulants mentioned);
support system (2-sided versus 4-sided);
glass thickness; and
encapsulant thickness.
We will compare some of these calculations with real mechanical load tests.
Comparison of Moisture Behavior and Mechanical Strength of Several Encapsulants
Encapsulant materials can provide protection and electrical isolation of the solar components in photovoltaic (PV) modules from the environment. However, some photovoltaic devices are sensitive to low levels of moisture and the ingress of water into a module can decrease its performance significantly during the lifetime of a module. In glass/glass PV modules, the moisture penetrates through the encapsulant to the module’s metal components and degradation can occur. In this study, we have developed and validated methods to determine moisture ingress in situ in a laminate. Results indicate that water permeability and equilibrium moisture level (which are temperature dependent) can both affect the corrosion of the metal. We have measured the moisture ingress through a developmental encapsulant material from the glass edge towards the center by an in-situ Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy technique after damp-heat exposure. The FTIR measurements were performed on glass / encapsulant / glass laminates that were weathered at various times at elevated temperatures and humidity. The moisture level in the encapsulant can be determined by integration of the IR band between 1880 and 1990 nm. This peak surface was compared to a calibration curve, which was obtained using laminates with known encapsulant moisture levels (determined by Karl- Fischer titration). The moisture migration through an encapsulant material from the edge was also measured using an ASTM D7191 moisture analysis method [1]. The measurements were made on Al foil/encapsulant/Al foil laminates that were exposed to 85°C and 85%RH (damp heat). The experimental data from both methods were well-correlated using a Fickian diffusion model.
DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE INGRESS THROUGH VARIOUS ENCAPSULANTS IN GLASS/GLASS LAMINATES
Photovoltaic Encapsulant Optical Property Study
This paper will present a technical comparison of several incumbent and candidate encapsulants that can be used for thin-film photovoltaic module manufacturing. We will focus on moisture ingress behavior and mechanical properties of several polymers. Most thin-film technologies are moisture sensitive; meaning, they can experience decreases in power output as a result of moisture ingress. One of the most important tests for this is a "damp heat" test defined by IEC 61646, where a module is placed for a period of time at 85oC and 85% relative humidity. Moisture ingress data measured in from the sides of glass-glass laminates after 1000 to 5000 hours of damp heat testing will be discussed. Resulting data for PVB, EVA and several ionomer-based encapsulants (commercial and experimental ionomers) will be compared.
Besides its role in protecting a cell from moisture and other environmental factors, an encapsulant also contributes to mechanical strength in a module. Finite Element Modeling (FEM) can be used to calculate the strength behavior of modules made with alternative encapsulants, under mechanical wind load test conditions (2.4 kPa uniform pressure for 1 hour). FEM modeling using a theoretical module will be discussed, where the variables are:
type of encapsulant (we will discuss all encapsulants mentioned);
support system (2-sided versus 4-sided);
glass thickness; and
encapsulant thickness.
We will compare some of these calculations with real mechanical load tests.
Comparison of Moisture Behavior and Mechanical Strength of Several Encapsulants
Encapsulant materials can provide protection and electrical isolation of the solar components in photovoltaic (PV) modules from the environment. However, some photovoltaic devices are sensitive to low levels of moisture and the ingress of water into a module can decrease its performance significantly during the lifetime of a module. In glass/glass PV modules, the moisture penetrates through the encapsulant to the module’s metal components and degradation can occur. In this study, we have developed and validated methods to determine moisture ingress in situ in a laminate. Results indicate that water permeability and equilibrium moisture level (which are temperature dependent) can both affect the corrosion of the metal. We have measured the moisture ingress through a developmental encapsulant material from the glass edge towards the center by an in-situ Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy technique after damp-heat exposure. The FTIR measurements were performed on glass / encapsulant / glass laminates that were weathered at various times at elevated temperatures and humidity. The moisture level in the encapsulant can be determined by integration of the IR band between 1880 and 1990 nm. This peak surface was compared to a calibration curve, which was obtained using laminates with known encapsulant moisture levels (determined by Karl- Fischer titration). The moisture migration through an encapsulant material from the edge was also measured using an ASTM D7191 moisture analysis method [1]. The measurements were made on Al foil/encapsulant/Al foil laminates that were exposed to 85°C and 85%RH (damp heat). The experimental data from both methods were well-correlated using a Fickian diffusion model.
DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE INGRESS THROUGH VARIOUS ENCAPSULANTS IN GLASS/GLASS LAMINATES
Monday, April 12, 2010
Friday, March 12, 2010
3M renewable ideals
Solar module production is largest in Europe (where installations are heavily government subsidized) and in Asia, where many new module plants are being built. The U.S., however, is ahead in building plants for the new thin-film cells, which can be built into both flexible and rigid solar modules. Flexibles are the ones to watch.
There are literally dozens of start-up companies for 'thin-film on flex' that are pre-commercial or just barely commercial," says Marc Doyle, business director for DuPont Photovoltaic Solutions. The ultimate goal for thin-film flexible modules is to be integrated into building materials like rolls of roofing, instead of requiring separate panels. This is already being tried with industrial roofing.
For flexible solar modules to be widely used in roofing, however, they will have to provide 20 to 25 years of product life. "We need better plastic barrier films for outdoor environments," says Dan Williams, v.p. of product and business development at Konarka Technologies Inc., Lowell, Mass., which is pioneering flexible all--plastic solar cells.
Module makers buy their plastic films from specialized processors. Older-style photovoltaic films of fluoropolymers and EVA Eva
to marry winner of singing contest. [Ger. Opera: Wagner, Meistersinger, Westerman, 225–228]
See : Prize
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1. Eva - A toy ALGOL-like language used in "Formal Specification of Programming Languages: A Panoramic Primer", F.G. haven't changed much in three decades since solar cells were first introduced. But the combination of high growth, new cell technologies, and a big push to cut costs is spurring lots of new film technologies. A market that had few choices for films 18 months ago, is now bursting with new film choices and alternative manufacturing methods.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Introducing new films into the photovoltaic market isn't easy. For example, it can cost a global module maker as much as $100,000 for third-party testing to qualify a new back-sheet material. But for a high--growth market, manufacturers are deciding it's worth the effort.
THE TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS
There are two types of commercial solar cells. Crystalline silicon (c-Si), produced for about three decades, constitutes about 90% of the market. "Thin-film," introduced 10 years ago, makes up the remaining 10%. Older-style c-Si solar cells all share similar construction, with slight variations. They use silicon wafers sawed from rods of pure silicon to convert light waves into electricity. Silicon is expensive, and the wafers are fragile, so modules require special handling throughout production.
Crystalline silicon modules consist typically of a glass top sheet, followed by EVA encapsulation film, silicon-wafer solar cells, another EVA film, and finally a back sheet of laminated fluoropolymerA fluoropolymer is a polymer that contains atoms of fluorine. It is characterized by a high resistance to solvents, acids, and bases.
Fluoropolymers were discovered serendipitously in 1938 by Dr. Roy J. Plunkett.
..... Click the link for more information. and other films. All these components make c-Si modules expensive, but they have an operating life of 20 to 25 years and electrical efficiency of 14% to 23%. The world's largest producer of c-Si solar modules is Suntech Power Holding Co. in China.
Thin-film solar cells are the second generation, holding the promise of lower cost. Many are made by continuous roll-to-roll production, whereas crystalline silicon is a batch process. "Thin-film" refers to the light-absorbing semiconductor layer, which is indeed a thin film of conductive metal, vapor-deposited in a vacuum on a thin substrate like glass, aluminum, stainless steel stainless steel: see steel.
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stainless steel
Any of a family of alloy steels usually containing 10–30% chromium. The presence of chromium, together with low carbon content, gives remarkable resistance to corrosion and heat. , or polyimide Pronounced "poly-ih-mid." A type of plastic (a synthetic polymeric resin) originally developed by DuPont that is very durable, easy to machine and can handle very high temperatures. Polyimide is also highly insulative and does not contaminate its surroundings (does not outgas). .
Thin-film modules are much thinner, less expensive, and less fragile than crystalline silicon, but they have a shorter track record since most are recently developed. Their electrical efficiency ranges widely from 6% to 20%, depending on the semiconductor. Thin-film cells use one of three major semiconductor materials: a-Si (amorphous silicon), CdTe (cadmium telluride Telluride (tĕl`yərīd), town (1990 pop. 1,309), seat of San Miguel co., SW Colo., on the San Miguel River in the San Juan Mts., inc. 1887. ), or CIGS CIGS Ceilings (general aviation weather)
CIGS Copper Indium Gallium Selenide
CIGS Chief of the Imperial General Staff (WWII British)
CIGS Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (copper-indium-gallium selenideSel´e`nide
n. 1. (Chem.) A binary compound of selenium, or a compound regarded as binary; as, ethyl selenide s>.
..... Click the link for more information.). They also have one or two protective encapsulation layers of plastic films, a front sheet of glass, and sometimes a back sheet of glass or plastic.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the oldest and most widely used thin-film semiconductor. It's not as efficient as crystalline silicon, but less expensive. (It can
also be deposited on glass and heated to convert it into micro-crystalline silicon.) The biggest commercial producer of a-Si thin-film solar cells is Sharp Corp. of Japan, also a large producer of conventional c-Si solar cells. Sharp pairs a-Si with micro-crystalline silicon to get higher efficiency.
Over 100 new companies are setting up to make a-Si thin-film modules in the next few years. Many of them are using turnkey processing equipment from Applied Materials Inc., Santa Clara, Calif.; Spire Corp., Bedford, Mass.; and Oerlikon Solar in Trubbach, Switzerland. This is a significant new development, since previous production systems were mostly proprietary.
Thin-film cells on a flexible substrate can be built into older-style rigid or new-generation flexible modules. United Solar Ovonic o·von·ic
adj.
Of or relating to a device whose operation is based on the Ovshinsky effect.
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[Ov(shinsky effect) + (electr)onic.] LLC (Logical Link Control) See "LANs" under data link protocol.
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LLC - Logical Link Control , a unit of Energy Conversion Devices Inc. in Auburn Hills, Mich., makes flexible thin-film laminated modules with three different a-Si alloys (called "triple junction") to absorb blue, green, and red photons of light. Uni-Solar cells have a flexible stainless-steel substrate with an ETFE ETFE Ethylene/Tetrafluoroethylene Copolymer front sheet and adhesive layers of ethylene-propylene copolymer copolymer: see polymer. .
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Last October, Energy Conversion Devices announced a joint program with CertainTeed Corp. to develop these flexible thin-film modules into residential roofing and siding materials. Energy Conversion also announced that it would rapidly accelerate production of the new flexible modules from 70 MW annually to 420 MW/yr by 2010, 720 MW by 2011, and 1 GW by 2012.
Power Film Inc. (formerly Iowa Thin Film Technologies), started by former 3M scientists in Ames, Iowa, makes plastic-based solar cells by depositing a-Si on a 1-mil flexible polyimide substrate. Power Film makes custom modules, typically with an ETFE front sheet and fluoropolymer/polyester back sheet. Individual cells are laser-cut from a continuous sheet with electrical connections printed on the surface of the panel, reportedly increasing reliability and reducing cost. Power Film targets low-voltage navigational aids for the military and will launch a "20-year" module for building integration later this year.
Nanotechnology is also being used in thin-film semiconductors for solar cells. Innovalight in Sunnyvale, Calif., has a technology to print light-absorbing inks that contain silicon nano-crystals.
CdTe semiconductors account for about 30% of thin-film solar cells. CdTe is similar in efficiency to a-Si, but more sensitive to moisture. First Solar Inc. in Tempe, Ariz., the world's largest producer of thin-film modules, uses CdTe cells, starting with a glass front sheet, a thin layer of tin oxide tin oxide (SnO),
n a polishing agent in the form of a purified white powder, prepared as a paste with glycerine or water. , a semiconductor on a metal substrate, EVA encapsulant en·cap·su·lant
n.
A material used for encapsulating. , and glass back sheet.
Bloo Solar Inc. (formerly Q1 Nano Systems) in West Sacramento, Calif., a spinoff from the Univ. of Calif. at Berkeley, has thin-film technology that deposits rod-shaped nano-crystals of CdSe (cadmium selenide) and CdTe upright like brush bristles to increase the material's light absorbency. Instead of an electrode layer with positive and negative sides, pairs of CdSe and CdTe molecules give and receive electrical charges.
CIGS is the newest type of thin-film metal semiconductor. It's potentially the most efficient and least expensive, but also the most sensitive to moisture. Early entrants in CIGS solar cells use different production methods, and most aren't fully commercial yet, so they account for only about 1% of the market. Nanosolar in San Jose, Calif., prints CIGS as an ink (like printed circuits) onto a metal substrate in a roll-to-roll process. Commercial cells have up to 15% efficiency, developmental cells up to 20%. Global Solar Energy, a 10-year-old firm in Tucson, Ariz., and Helio Volt in Austin, Texas, both started up plants last year to make CIGS solar cells and modules.
NEXT: ORGANIC CELLS
Thin-film solar cells with metal or mineral semiconductors are still in their infancy, but the solar industry is already looking ahead to the next-generation electrode--"organic" thin-film cells on plastic. Organic semiconductor materials are dissolved in solvents or inks and printed or coated onto a plastic substrate in a continuous roll-to-roll process.
Substrates for organic semiconductors can be plastic because organic coatings don't need to withstand high temperatures like sputtered metal. Organic conductive materials are less expensive than silicon, cadmium, or tellurium tellurium (tĕlr`ēəm) [Lat.,=earth], semimetallic chemical element; symbol Te; at. no. 52; at. wt. 127.60; m.p. 450°C;; b.p. 990°C;; sp. gr. 6. , the metals used in current thin-film solar cells, but organics are also less efficient.
The first organic thin-film solar modules are in prototype production now. Power Plastic modules from Konarka, for example, have a clear plastic top layer, a coating of prepolymer adhesive, then ink containing fullerene fullerene, any of a class of carbon molecules in which the carbon atoms are arranged into 12 pentagonal faces and 2 or more hexagonal faces to form a hollow sphere, cylinder, or similar figure. conductive nanocarbon clusters (or "buckyballs"), and another liquid polymer coating, applied onto DuPont Teijin Mylar polyester film with SiOx coating.
The efficiency of Konarka's test cells is now up to 6%. Longevity is also short (3-5 years), but Power Plastic is intended to generate power for portable electronic devices that typically won't be used for more than a few years, like laptops and cellphones. Power Plastic also targets tents, awnings, tarps, and even clothing with a built-in emergency power supply.
Plextronics Inc. in Pittsburgh has developed and is licensing organic inks for solar cells. It makes solar modules only for R&D, not commercial sale. A Plextronics cell consists of a transparent anode anode (ăn`ōd), electrode through which current enters an electric device. In electrolysis, it is the positive electrode in the electrolytic cell.
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anode
Terminal or electrode from which electrons leave a system. layer that lets sunlight into a layer pigmented with photoactive photoactive /pho·to·ac·tive/ (-ak´tiv) reacting chemically to sunlight or ultraviolet radiation.
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photoactive
reacting chemically to sunlight or ultraviolet radiation. ink, which passes electrons to an electrically conductive polymer layer on a plastic substrate. Efficiency of test samples is up to 6%.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
NEW FRONT-SHEET FILMS
The advent of flexible thin-film modules has created a new market for plastic front sheets. Most are clear monolayer mon·o·lay·er
n.
1. A film or layer one molecule thick formed at the interface between water and either oil or air by a substance such as a partially esterified fatty acid that contains both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups in the same fluoropolymer films like ETFE or its derivatives. DuPont, Asahi Glass, and Saint-Gobain Performance Plastics Corp. make the fluoropolymer films.
Saint-Gobain is developing new coextruded multi-layer photovoltaic products that could combine ETFE top sheets and encapsulation layers or glass top sheets with encapsulants.
Other new optical films, most based on other fluoropolymers, are being introduced for this market. Ten months ago, Rowland Technologies Inc. in Wallingford, Conn., introduced the first PVDF PVDF polyvinylidene difluoride front sheet, called Rowlar, using Arkema's Kyuar PVDF. Rowlar, which took 18 months to develop, has light transmission >93% and haze <9%.
Another new optical front-sheet material is Corin XLS (filename extension) xls - Excel spreadsheet. polyimide, made by ManTech NeXolve Corp. (formerly ManTech SRS SRS, SRS-A
see slow-reacting substance. Technologies) in Huntsville, Ala. It comes as a sprayable resin or film and is used for photovoltaic arrays in space. An unusual ingredient in Corin XLS is a nano-scale additive, POSS (polyhedral polyhedral /poly·he·dral/ (-he´dril) having many sides or surfaces.
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polyhedral
having many sides or surfaces. oligomeric silsesquioxane) from Hybrid Plastics Inc. These "cage--type" molecules reduce color and resist atomic oxygen, a hazard to space vehicles orbiting the earth.
NEW ENCAPSULATION FILMS
All solar cells use encapsulation films, typically EVA, to protect the electrode. The two largest producers are Specialty Technology Resources Inc. (STR STR
abbr.
synchronous transmitter receiver ) in Enfield, Conn., and Etimex Primary Packaging GmbH in Germany (formerly part of BP Plastics). Mitsui and Bridgestone in Japan also make EVA encapsulation films. And 20 or 30 new companies are getting into EVA film extrusion in China and Korea, where conventional module manufacturing is growing the fastest.
For the module maker, crosslinked EVA is costly and slow to laminate and cure (10 to 20 min). Photovoltaic grades of EVA have high vinyl acetate ratios and special crosslinking aids for faster curing. Etimex, for example, offers "ultra-fast" EVA film that cures in 7-10 min, but that's still considered slow.
Alternative thermoplastic A polymer material that turns to liquid when heated and becomes solid when cooled. There are more than 40 types of thermoplastics, including acrylic, polypropylene, polycarbonate and polyethylene. encapsulant films are being introduced to reduce lamination lamination
a laminar structure or arrangement. time. Thin-film a-Si modules are sometimes sandwiched between glass front and back sheets using PVB PVB Polyvinylbutyral
PVB Pressure Vacuum Breaker
PVB Portametric Voltmeter Bridge
PVB Potemkin Village Band (Potemkin Village, Canada) (polyvinyl butyral) encapsulation films, because of PVB's long use in automotive safety glass. DuPont and Kuraray make PVB encapsulation films.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Several companies have introduced TPU TPU - Text Processing Utility encapsulation films. An example is Etimex's VistaSolar, made of Bayer's Desmopan TPU. It's used in conventional c-Si solar cells by SunWare Solartechnik GmbH in Germany to speed the lamination process and lower manufacturing cost. It reportedly bonds better to silicon wafers than EVA. VistaSolar TPU encapsulating films come in 0.3- to 1.2-mm gauges.
Two years ago, Stevens Urethane urethane (yoor´ithān´),
n ethyl carbamate used as an anesthetic agent for laboratory animals, formerly used as a hypnotic in humans. in East Hampton, Mass., got into encapsulant films. It introduced a TPU film and a conventional EVA film. Stevens had prior experience extruding optical TPU and EVA films for aerospace and armored glass laminations.
Bemis Worldwide, a formulator of specialty adhesives in Shirley, Mass., is ramping up production of several new encapsulation films, including a TPU grade and several polyolefin films.
Jura-plast GmbH in Germany (U.S. office in Goodland, Ind.) introduced thermoplastic Jurasol ionomer ionomer (īon´mr),
n a polymer containing ion. encapsulation films for photovoltaics five years ago. They are used on double-glass panels with c-Si by Schott Solar in Germany, which has U.S. plants in Albequerque, N.M., and Billerica, Mass.
NEW BACK SHEETS
Nowhere has the development of new materials been more frenetic than in back sheets. The standard material for 20 years has been a lamination of DuPont's biaxially oriented Tedlar PVF PVF Polyvinylidene Fluoride
PVF Pipe, Valves and Fittings
PVF Poly-Vinyl Fluoride
PVF Present Value Factor
PVf Peso Vivo Final (Portugese)
PVF Prepaid Variable Forward (equity trading strategy) (polyvinyl fluoride) film on either side of biaxially oriented PET film. The laminate is known to module makers as "TPT TPT Transport
TPT Trumpet (music scores)
TPT The Physics Teacher
TPT Tara Palmer-Tomkinson (UK celebrity)
TPT Trailer Park Trash
TPT Temporary Part Time
TPT Thermodynamic Perturbation Theory ." The PET film provides dielectric and mechanical strength, while PVF protects the PET film against UV.
DuPont is the only commercial producer of PVF resin and also makes Tedlar PVF film. It has announced several expansions of both resin and film. The first expansion of PVF resin started up in Fayetteville, N.C., in 2007. DuPont also launched unoriented Tedlar 2100 cast film as an alternative to biax Tedlar, which has been on allocation for years. Back-sheet suppliers were urged by DuPont to steer new customers to the new 2100 film, though it required new qualification to be used for back sheets.
Back-sheet suppliers must guarantee that they can ramp up Ramp Up
To increase a company's operations in anticipation of increased demand.
Notes:
A company might 'ramp up' operations if they just signed a contract creating substantially more demand for their product.
See also: Demand, Economies of Scale supply once a customer's module goes into production. But they ran into serious difficulties in obtaining the new Tedlar 2100, causing a scramble in 2008 for other solutions. Last fall, DuPont announced plans for further Tedlar resin expansions to support Tedlar films, but demand still exceeds supply for biax Tedlar films.
Tedlar and competing back-sheet materials are aimed at conventional c-Si modules. Only a minority of thin-film modules use plastic back sheets.
BioSolar Inc., a start-up in Santa Clarita, Calif., is challenging Tedlar with a new lower-cost back sheet made entirely of biomaterials. It includes nylon 11 derived from castor beans, cotton-fiber paper, and polylactic acid polylactic acid /poly·lac·tic ac·id/ (-lak´tik) a hydrophobic hydroxy acid polymer that is formed into granules and used as a surgical dressing for dental extraction sites. (PLA (Programmable Logic Array) A type of programmable logic chip (PLD) that contained arrays of programmable AND and OR gates. PLAs are no longer used. See PLD.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(language, music) Pla - A high-level music programming language, written in SAIL. ) film, and is said to be as effective as Tedlar/PET/Tedlar and much less expensive.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
SBM SBM - Solution Based Modelling Solar Inc., Concord, N.C., makes rigid modules using traditional c-Si cells with an unusual back sheet. It's a composite of aluminum honeycomb honeycomb
a mosaic of closely packed units with depressed centers giving a honeycomb appearance.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
honeycomb ringworm
see favus.
honeycomb stomach
reticulum. and plastic with thermoplastic encapsulant films. SBM also uses an ETFE fluoropolymer front sheet. "One of my missions is to try to develop new solar modules with no glass, using different plastic materials," says SBM president Dr. Osbert Cheung. SBM's panels, though rigid, are lightweight and cool enough in operation to be integrated into roofs.
In 2007, Madico in Woburn, Mass., introduced two new Protekt back sheets, regular and HD (high-dielectric), that contain no Tedlar. They replace Tedlar's UV protection with 13 microns of perfluoroalkyl vinylether coating at 10% to 15% lower cost. Another recent Madico back sheet uses seven layers, including PVF with aluminum foil and EVA and PET films.
Arkema Group in France has introduced a 30-micron Kynar PVDF blown film for back sheets of c-Si modules, replacing 25-micron Tedlar film. The PVDF film had been under development for 10 years, including three years of comparative testing against PVF, before it was introduced last year to fill the Tedlar shortage.
Big European suppliers of back sheets are Iso Volta Group in Weiner Neudorf, Austria, and Krempel GmbH in Vaihingen/ Enz, Germany. Krempel introduced Akasol PVL PVL Periventricular Leukomalacia
PVL Prevail
PVL Parameter Value Language
PVL Pade Via Lanczos (circuit modeling)
PVL Physical Volume Library
PVL Pascack Valley Line (New Jersey Transit commuter rail line) 1000 V, a Kynar/JPET/Kynar laminate, known to module makers as KPK KPK Key Production Key
KPK Kommunisticheskaya Partiya Kazakhstana (Russian: Communist Party Kazakhstan)
KPK Key Protection Key , as a substitute for TPT. Krempel also offers a less expensive Kynar/PET laminate.
3M Company has developed new Scotchshield Film 17 as an alternative back sheet for c-Si modules. It is made of THV-PET-EVA. The THV THV Total Hazard Value
THV through-hole via (electronics) fluoroplastic is made by 3M's Dyneon subsidiary. The PET was especially developed by 3M for the application. 3M's current production is in the U.S., and another plant is being built in Singapore.
Last year, Honeywell International launched five-layer PowerShield PV325 back sheet using Honeywell's E1250 PW film, made of Honeywell's ECTFE ECTFE Ethylene Chlorotrifluoroethylene fluoropolymer. The back-sheet structure is ECTFE-adhesive-PET-adhesive-ECTFE.
Saint-Gobain is testing new multilayer back-sheet films based on its own ECTFE resins.
Potentially the least expensive of all is a special EPDM EPDM Ethylene-Propylene-Diene-Monomer
EPDM Enterprise Product Data Management
EPDM Ethylene Propylene Dimonomer (industrial/commercial piping/plumbing components)
EPDM Engineering Product Data Management film from BRP BRP Bombardier Recreational Products, Inc.
BRP Blue Ribbon Panel
BRP Bioengineering Research Partnership
BRP Business Resumption Plan
BRP Business Recovery Plan
BRP Bathroom Privileges
BRP Bronx River Parkway (New York) Manufacturing (formerly Buckeye Rubber Products) in Lima, Ohio, which was co-developed over five years with researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), located in Golden, Colorado, as part of the U.S. Department of Energy, is the United States' primary laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research and development. in Golden, Colo. The 0.018-in. film is being sampled and tested as a novel monolayer back sheet that will reduce costs for both c-Si and thin-film modules. The crosslinked EPDM film replaces a lamination of three higher--cost films--EVA sealant, PET dielectric, and Tedlar PVF--with one inexpensive film. It is formulated to cure at the same temperature as the EVA top encapsulant layer in c-Si modules.
CONTACT SUPPLIERS
For more information on these companies and their products, visit www.PTonline.com/suppliers.
Arkema inc., Philadelphia (215)419-7000 * www.arkema-inc.com
Bayer MaterlalScience LLC, Pittsburgh (412) 777-2000 * www.bayermaterialscience.com
Du Pont Photovoltaic Solutions, Wilmington, DE (888) 387--8337 * www.photovoltaics.dupont.com
Honeywell, Morristown, NJ (973) 455-3187 * www.honeywell.com
Hybrid Plastics inc., Hattlesburg, MS (601) 544-3466 * www.hybridpastics.com
Manfech NeXolve Corp., Huntsville, AL (256) 971-7019 * www.mantechmaterials.com
Plextronics Inc., Pittsburgh (412) 423-2030 * www.plextronics.com
There are literally dozens of start-up companies for 'thin-film on flex' that are pre-commercial or just barely commercial," says Marc Doyle, business director for DuPont Photovoltaic Solutions. The ultimate goal for thin-film flexible modules is to be integrated into building materials like rolls of roofing, instead of requiring separate panels. This is already being tried with industrial roofing.
For flexible solar modules to be widely used in roofing, however, they will have to provide 20 to 25 years of product life. "We need better plastic barrier films for outdoor environments," says Dan Williams, v.p. of product and business development at Konarka Technologies Inc., Lowell, Mass., which is pioneering flexible all--plastic solar cells.
Module makers buy their plastic films from specialized processors. Older-style photovoltaic films of fluoropolymers and EVA Eva
to marry winner of singing contest. [Ger. Opera: Wagner, Meistersinger, Westerman, 225–228]
See : Prize
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Eva - A toy ALGOL-like language used in "Formal Specification of Programming Languages: A Panoramic Primer", F.G. haven't changed much in three decades since solar cells were first introduced. But the combination of high growth, new cell technologies, and a big push to cut costs is spurring lots of new film technologies. A market that had few choices for films 18 months ago, is now bursting with new film choices and alternative manufacturing methods.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Introducing new films into the photovoltaic market isn't easy. For example, it can cost a global module maker as much as $100,000 for third-party testing to qualify a new back-sheet material. But for a high--growth market, manufacturers are deciding it's worth the effort.
THE TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS
There are two types of commercial solar cells. Crystalline silicon (c-Si), produced for about three decades, constitutes about 90% of the market. "Thin-film," introduced 10 years ago, makes up the remaining 10%. Older-style c-Si solar cells all share similar construction, with slight variations. They use silicon wafers sawed from rods of pure silicon to convert light waves into electricity. Silicon is expensive, and the wafers are fragile, so modules require special handling throughout production.
Crystalline silicon modules consist typically of a glass top sheet, followed by EVA encapsulation film, silicon-wafer solar cells, another EVA film, and finally a back sheet of laminated fluoropolymerA fluoropolymer is a polymer that contains atoms of fluorine. It is characterized by a high resistance to solvents, acids, and bases.
Fluoropolymers were discovered serendipitously in 1938 by Dr. Roy J. Plunkett.
..... Click the link for more information. and other films. All these components make c-Si modules expensive, but they have an operating life of 20 to 25 years and electrical efficiency of 14% to 23%. The world's largest producer of c-Si solar modules is Suntech Power Holding Co. in China.
Thin-film solar cells are the second generation, holding the promise of lower cost. Many are made by continuous roll-to-roll production, whereas crystalline silicon is a batch process. "Thin-film" refers to the light-absorbing semiconductor layer, which is indeed a thin film of conductive metal, vapor-deposited in a vacuum on a thin substrate like glass, aluminum, stainless steel stainless steel: see steel.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
stainless steel
Any of a family of alloy steels usually containing 10–30% chromium. The presence of chromium, together with low carbon content, gives remarkable resistance to corrosion and heat. , or polyimide Pronounced "poly-ih-mid." A type of plastic (a synthetic polymeric resin) originally developed by DuPont that is very durable, easy to machine and can handle very high temperatures. Polyimide is also highly insulative and does not contaminate its surroundings (does not outgas). .
Thin-film modules are much thinner, less expensive, and less fragile than crystalline silicon, but they have a shorter track record since most are recently developed. Their electrical efficiency ranges widely from 6% to 20%, depending on the semiconductor. Thin-film cells use one of three major semiconductor materials: a-Si (amorphous silicon), CdTe (cadmium telluride Telluride (tĕl`yərīd), town (1990 pop. 1,309), seat of San Miguel co., SW Colo., on the San Miguel River in the San Juan Mts., inc. 1887. ), or CIGS CIGS Ceilings (general aviation weather)
CIGS Copper Indium Gallium Selenide
CIGS Chief of the Imperial General Staff (WWII British)
CIGS Centro de Instrução de Guerra na Selva (copper-indium-gallium selenideSel´e`nide
n. 1. (Chem.) A binary compound of selenium, or a compound regarded as binary; as, ethyl selenide s>.
..... Click the link for more information.). They also have one or two protective encapsulation layers of plastic films, a front sheet of glass, and sometimes a back sheet of glass or plastic.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the oldest and most widely used thin-film semiconductor. It's not as efficient as crystalline silicon, but less expensive. (It can
also be deposited on glass and heated to convert it into micro-crystalline silicon.) The biggest commercial producer of a-Si thin-film solar cells is Sharp Corp. of Japan, also a large producer of conventional c-Si solar cells. Sharp pairs a-Si with micro-crystalline silicon to get higher efficiency.
Over 100 new companies are setting up to make a-Si thin-film modules in the next few years. Many of them are using turnkey processing equipment from Applied Materials Inc., Santa Clara, Calif.; Spire Corp., Bedford, Mass.; and Oerlikon Solar in Trubbach, Switzerland. This is a significant new development, since previous production systems were mostly proprietary.
Thin-film cells on a flexible substrate can be built into older-style rigid or new-generation flexible modules. United Solar Ovonic o·von·ic
adj.
Of or relating to a device whose operation is based on the Ovshinsky effect.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[Ov(shinsky effect) + (electr)onic.] LLC (Logical Link Control) See "LANs" under data link protocol.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
LLC - Logical Link Control , a unit of Energy Conversion Devices Inc. in Auburn Hills, Mich., makes flexible thin-film laminated modules with three different a-Si alloys (called "triple junction") to absorb blue, green, and red photons of light. Uni-Solar cells have a flexible stainless-steel substrate with an ETFE ETFE Ethylene/Tetrafluoroethylene Copolymer front sheet and adhesive layers of ethylene-propylene copolymer copolymer: see polymer. .
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Last October, Energy Conversion Devices announced a joint program with CertainTeed Corp. to develop these flexible thin-film modules into residential roofing and siding materials. Energy Conversion also announced that it would rapidly accelerate production of the new flexible modules from 70 MW annually to 420 MW/yr by 2010, 720 MW by 2011, and 1 GW by 2012.
Power Film Inc. (formerly Iowa Thin Film Technologies), started by former 3M scientists in Ames, Iowa, makes plastic-based solar cells by depositing a-Si on a 1-mil flexible polyimide substrate. Power Film makes custom modules, typically with an ETFE front sheet and fluoropolymer/polyester back sheet. Individual cells are laser-cut from a continuous sheet with electrical connections printed on the surface of the panel, reportedly increasing reliability and reducing cost. Power Film targets low-voltage navigational aids for the military and will launch a "20-year" module for building integration later this year.
Nanotechnology is also being used in thin-film semiconductors for solar cells. Innovalight in Sunnyvale, Calif., has a technology to print light-absorbing inks that contain silicon nano-crystals.
CdTe semiconductors account for about 30% of thin-film solar cells. CdTe is similar in efficiency to a-Si, but more sensitive to moisture. First Solar Inc. in Tempe, Ariz., the world's largest producer of thin-film modules, uses CdTe cells, starting with a glass front sheet, a thin layer of tin oxide tin oxide (SnO),
n a polishing agent in the form of a purified white powder, prepared as a paste with glycerine or water. , a semiconductor on a metal substrate, EVA encapsulant en·cap·su·lant
n.
A material used for encapsulating. , and glass back sheet.
Bloo Solar Inc. (formerly Q1 Nano Systems) in West Sacramento, Calif., a spinoff from the Univ. of Calif. at Berkeley, has thin-film technology that deposits rod-shaped nano-crystals of CdSe (cadmium selenide) and CdTe upright like brush bristles to increase the material's light absorbency. Instead of an electrode layer with positive and negative sides, pairs of CdSe and CdTe molecules give and receive electrical charges.
CIGS is the newest type of thin-film metal semiconductor. It's potentially the most efficient and least expensive, but also the most sensitive to moisture. Early entrants in CIGS solar cells use different production methods, and most aren't fully commercial yet, so they account for only about 1% of the market. Nanosolar in San Jose, Calif., prints CIGS as an ink (like printed circuits) onto a metal substrate in a roll-to-roll process. Commercial cells have up to 15% efficiency, developmental cells up to 20%. Global Solar Energy, a 10-year-old firm in Tucson, Ariz., and Helio Volt in Austin, Texas, both started up plants last year to make CIGS solar cells and modules.
NEXT: ORGANIC CELLS
Thin-film solar cells with metal or mineral semiconductors are still in their infancy, but the solar industry is already looking ahead to the next-generation electrode--"organic" thin-film cells on plastic. Organic semiconductor materials are dissolved in solvents or inks and printed or coated onto a plastic substrate in a continuous roll-to-roll process.
Substrates for organic semiconductors can be plastic because organic coatings don't need to withstand high temperatures like sputtered metal. Organic conductive materials are less expensive than silicon, cadmium, or tellurium tellurium (tĕlr`ēəm) [Lat.,=earth], semimetallic chemical element; symbol Te; at. no. 52; at. wt. 127.60; m.p. 450°C;; b.p. 990°C;; sp. gr. 6. , the metals used in current thin-film solar cells, but organics are also less efficient.
The first organic thin-film solar modules are in prototype production now. Power Plastic modules from Konarka, for example, have a clear plastic top layer, a coating of prepolymer adhesive, then ink containing fullerene fullerene, any of a class of carbon molecules in which the carbon atoms are arranged into 12 pentagonal faces and 2 or more hexagonal faces to form a hollow sphere, cylinder, or similar figure. conductive nanocarbon clusters (or "buckyballs"), and another liquid polymer coating, applied onto DuPont Teijin Mylar polyester film with SiOx coating.
The efficiency of Konarka's test cells is now up to 6%. Longevity is also short (3-5 years), but Power Plastic is intended to generate power for portable electronic devices that typically won't be used for more than a few years, like laptops and cellphones. Power Plastic also targets tents, awnings, tarps, and even clothing with a built-in emergency power supply.
Plextronics Inc. in Pittsburgh has developed and is licensing organic inks for solar cells. It makes solar modules only for R&D, not commercial sale. A Plextronics cell consists of a transparent anode anode (ăn`ōd), electrode through which current enters an electric device. In electrolysis, it is the positive electrode in the electrolytic cell.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
anode
Terminal or electrode from which electrons leave a system. layer that lets sunlight into a layer pigmented with photoactive photoactive /pho·to·ac·tive/ (-ak´tiv) reacting chemically to sunlight or ultraviolet radiation.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
photoactive
reacting chemically to sunlight or ultraviolet radiation. ink, which passes electrons to an electrically conductive polymer layer on a plastic substrate. Efficiency of test samples is up to 6%.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
NEW FRONT-SHEET FILMS
The advent of flexible thin-film modules has created a new market for plastic front sheets. Most are clear monolayer mon·o·lay·er
n.
1. A film or layer one molecule thick formed at the interface between water and either oil or air by a substance such as a partially esterified fatty acid that contains both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups in the same fluoropolymer films like ETFE or its derivatives. DuPont, Asahi Glass, and Saint-Gobain Performance Plastics Corp. make the fluoropolymer films.
Saint-Gobain is developing new coextruded multi-layer photovoltaic products that could combine ETFE top sheets and encapsulation layers or glass top sheets with encapsulants.
Other new optical films, most based on other fluoropolymers, are being introduced for this market. Ten months ago, Rowland Technologies Inc. in Wallingford, Conn., introduced the first PVDF PVDF polyvinylidene difluoride front sheet, called Rowlar, using Arkema's Kyuar PVDF. Rowlar, which took 18 months to develop, has light transmission >93% and haze <9%.
Another new optical front-sheet material is Corin XLS (filename extension) xls - Excel spreadsheet. polyimide, made by ManTech NeXolve Corp. (formerly ManTech SRS SRS, SRS-A
see slow-reacting substance. Technologies) in Huntsville, Ala. It comes as a sprayable resin or film and is used for photovoltaic arrays in space. An unusual ingredient in Corin XLS is a nano-scale additive, POSS (polyhedral polyhedral /poly·he·dral/ (-he´dril) having many sides or surfaces.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
polyhedral
having many sides or surfaces. oligomeric silsesquioxane) from Hybrid Plastics Inc. These "cage--type" molecules reduce color and resist atomic oxygen, a hazard to space vehicles orbiting the earth.
NEW ENCAPSULATION FILMS
All solar cells use encapsulation films, typically EVA, to protect the electrode. The two largest producers are Specialty Technology Resources Inc. (STR STR
abbr.
synchronous transmitter receiver ) in Enfield, Conn., and Etimex Primary Packaging GmbH in Germany (formerly part of BP Plastics). Mitsui and Bridgestone in Japan also make EVA encapsulation films. And 20 or 30 new companies are getting into EVA film extrusion in China and Korea, where conventional module manufacturing is growing the fastest.
For the module maker, crosslinked EVA is costly and slow to laminate and cure (10 to 20 min). Photovoltaic grades of EVA have high vinyl acetate ratios and special crosslinking aids for faster curing. Etimex, for example, offers "ultra-fast" EVA film that cures in 7-10 min, but that's still considered slow.
Alternative thermoplastic A polymer material that turns to liquid when heated and becomes solid when cooled. There are more than 40 types of thermoplastics, including acrylic, polypropylene, polycarbonate and polyethylene. encapsulant films are being introduced to reduce lamination lamination
a laminar structure or arrangement. time. Thin-film a-Si modules are sometimes sandwiched between glass front and back sheets using PVB PVB Polyvinylbutyral
PVB Pressure Vacuum Breaker
PVB Portametric Voltmeter Bridge
PVB Potemkin Village Band (Potemkin Village, Canada) (polyvinyl butyral) encapsulation films, because of PVB's long use in automotive safety glass. DuPont and Kuraray make PVB encapsulation films.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Several companies have introduced TPU TPU - Text Processing Utility encapsulation films. An example is Etimex's VistaSolar, made of Bayer's Desmopan TPU. It's used in conventional c-Si solar cells by SunWare Solartechnik GmbH in Germany to speed the lamination process and lower manufacturing cost. It reportedly bonds better to silicon wafers than EVA. VistaSolar TPU encapsulating films come in 0.3- to 1.2-mm gauges.
Two years ago, Stevens Urethane urethane (yoor´ithān´),
n ethyl carbamate used as an anesthetic agent for laboratory animals, formerly used as a hypnotic in humans. in East Hampton, Mass., got into encapsulant films. It introduced a TPU film and a conventional EVA film. Stevens had prior experience extruding optical TPU and EVA films for aerospace and armored glass laminations.
Bemis Worldwide, a formulator of specialty adhesives in Shirley, Mass., is ramping up production of several new encapsulation films, including a TPU grade and several polyolefin films.
Jura-plast GmbH in Germany (U.S. office in Goodland, Ind.) introduced thermoplastic Jurasol ionomer ionomer (īon´mr),
n a polymer containing ion. encapsulation films for photovoltaics five years ago. They are used on double-glass panels with c-Si by Schott Solar in Germany, which has U.S. plants in Albequerque, N.M., and Billerica, Mass.
NEW BACK SHEETS
Nowhere has the development of new materials been more frenetic than in back sheets. The standard material for 20 years has been a lamination of DuPont's biaxially oriented Tedlar PVF PVF Polyvinylidene Fluoride
PVF Pipe, Valves and Fittings
PVF Poly-Vinyl Fluoride
PVF Present Value Factor
PVf Peso Vivo Final (Portugese)
PVF Prepaid Variable Forward (equity trading strategy) (polyvinyl fluoride) film on either side of biaxially oriented PET film. The laminate is known to module makers as "TPT TPT Transport
TPT Trumpet (music scores)
TPT The Physics Teacher
TPT Tara Palmer-Tomkinson (UK celebrity)
TPT Trailer Park Trash
TPT Temporary Part Time
TPT Thermodynamic Perturbation Theory ." The PET film provides dielectric and mechanical strength, while PVF protects the PET film against UV.
DuPont is the only commercial producer of PVF resin and also makes Tedlar PVF film. It has announced several expansions of both resin and film. The first expansion of PVF resin started up in Fayetteville, N.C., in 2007. DuPont also launched unoriented Tedlar 2100 cast film as an alternative to biax Tedlar, which has been on allocation for years. Back-sheet suppliers were urged by DuPont to steer new customers to the new 2100 film, though it required new qualification to be used for back sheets.
Back-sheet suppliers must guarantee that they can ramp up Ramp Up
To increase a company's operations in anticipation of increased demand.
Notes:
A company might 'ramp up' operations if they just signed a contract creating substantially more demand for their product.
See also: Demand, Economies of Scale supply once a customer's module goes into production. But they ran into serious difficulties in obtaining the new Tedlar 2100, causing a scramble in 2008 for other solutions. Last fall, DuPont announced plans for further Tedlar resin expansions to support Tedlar films, but demand still exceeds supply for biax Tedlar films.
Tedlar and competing back-sheet materials are aimed at conventional c-Si modules. Only a minority of thin-film modules use plastic back sheets.
BioSolar Inc., a start-up in Santa Clarita, Calif., is challenging Tedlar with a new lower-cost back sheet made entirely of biomaterials. It includes nylon 11 derived from castor beans, cotton-fiber paper, and polylactic acid polylactic acid /poly·lac·tic ac·id/ (-lak´tik) a hydrophobic hydroxy acid polymer that is formed into granules and used as a surgical dressing for dental extraction sites. (PLA (Programmable Logic Array) A type of programmable logic chip (PLD) that contained arrays of programmable AND and OR gates. PLAs are no longer used. See PLD.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(language, music) Pla - A high-level music programming language, written in SAIL. ) film, and is said to be as effective as Tedlar/PET/Tedlar and much less expensive.
[ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
SBM SBM - Solution Based Modelling Solar Inc., Concord, N.C., makes rigid modules using traditional c-Si cells with an unusual back sheet. It's a composite of aluminum honeycomb honeycomb
a mosaic of closely packed units with depressed centers giving a honeycomb appearance.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
honeycomb ringworm
see favus.
honeycomb stomach
reticulum. and plastic with thermoplastic encapsulant films. SBM also uses an ETFE fluoropolymer front sheet. "One of my missions is to try to develop new solar modules with no glass, using different plastic materials," says SBM president Dr. Osbert Cheung. SBM's panels, though rigid, are lightweight and cool enough in operation to be integrated into roofs.
In 2007, Madico in Woburn, Mass., introduced two new Protekt back sheets, regular and HD (high-dielectric), that contain no Tedlar. They replace Tedlar's UV protection with 13 microns of perfluoroalkyl vinylether coating at 10% to 15% lower cost. Another recent Madico back sheet uses seven layers, including PVF with aluminum foil and EVA and PET films.
Arkema Group in France has introduced a 30-micron Kynar PVDF blown film for back sheets of c-Si modules, replacing 25-micron Tedlar film. The PVDF film had been under development for 10 years, including three years of comparative testing against PVF, before it was introduced last year to fill the Tedlar shortage.
Big European suppliers of back sheets are Iso Volta Group in Weiner Neudorf, Austria, and Krempel GmbH in Vaihingen/ Enz, Germany. Krempel introduced Akasol PVL PVL Periventricular Leukomalacia
PVL Prevail
PVL Parameter Value Language
PVL Pade Via Lanczos (circuit modeling)
PVL Physical Volume Library
PVL Pascack Valley Line (New Jersey Transit commuter rail line) 1000 V, a Kynar/JPET/Kynar laminate, known to module makers as KPK KPK Key Production Key
KPK Kommunisticheskaya Partiya Kazakhstana (Russian: Communist Party Kazakhstan)
KPK Key Protection Key , as a substitute for TPT. Krempel also offers a less expensive Kynar/PET laminate.
3M Company has developed new Scotchshield Film 17 as an alternative back sheet for c-Si modules. It is made of THV-PET-EVA. The THV THV Total Hazard Value
THV through-hole via (electronics) fluoroplastic is made by 3M's Dyneon subsidiary. The PET was especially developed by 3M for the application. 3M's current production is in the U.S., and another plant is being built in Singapore.
Last year, Honeywell International launched five-layer PowerShield PV325 back sheet using Honeywell's E1250 PW film, made of Honeywell's ECTFE ECTFE Ethylene Chlorotrifluoroethylene fluoropolymer. The back-sheet structure is ECTFE-adhesive-PET-adhesive-ECTFE.
Saint-Gobain is testing new multilayer back-sheet films based on its own ECTFE resins.
Potentially the least expensive of all is a special EPDM EPDM Ethylene-Propylene-Diene-Monomer
EPDM Enterprise Product Data Management
EPDM Ethylene Propylene Dimonomer (industrial/commercial piping/plumbing components)
EPDM Engineering Product Data Management film from BRP BRP Bombardier Recreational Products, Inc.
BRP Blue Ribbon Panel
BRP Bioengineering Research Partnership
BRP Business Resumption Plan
BRP Business Recovery Plan
BRP Bathroom Privileges
BRP Bronx River Parkway (New York) Manufacturing (formerly Buckeye Rubber Products) in Lima, Ohio, which was co-developed over five years with researchers at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), located in Golden, Colorado, as part of the U.S. Department of Energy, is the United States' primary laboratory for renewable energy and energy efficiency research and development. in Golden, Colo. The 0.018-in. film is being sampled and tested as a novel monolayer back sheet that will reduce costs for both c-Si and thin-film modules. The crosslinked EPDM film replaces a lamination of three higher--cost films--EVA sealant, PET dielectric, and Tedlar PVF--with one inexpensive film. It is formulated to cure at the same temperature as the EVA top encapsulant layer in c-Si modules.
CONTACT SUPPLIERS
For more information on these companies and their products, visit www.PTonline.com/suppliers.
Arkema inc., Philadelphia (215)419-7000 * www.arkema-inc.com
Bayer MaterlalScience LLC, Pittsburgh (412) 777-2000 * www.bayermaterialscience.com
Du Pont Photovoltaic Solutions, Wilmington, DE (888) 387--8337 * www.photovoltaics.dupont.com
Honeywell, Morristown, NJ (973) 455-3187 * www.honeywell.com
Hybrid Plastics inc., Hattlesburg, MS (601) 544-3466 * www.hybridpastics.com
Manfech NeXolve Corp., Huntsville, AL (256) 971-7019 * www.mantechmaterials.com
Plextronics Inc., Pittsburgh (412) 423-2030 * www.plextronics.com
Saturday, January 23, 2010
Recommanded books
1)Fluorinated Ionomers
by Walther Grot
William Andrew © 2008 (253 pages) Citation
ISBN:9780815515418
Authored by the inventor of the first commercial product known as Nafion (DuPont), this book emphasizes the practical aspects of working with fluorinated ionomers, and helps readers with the preparation, fabrication, use and study of these products.
2) Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites: Technical Information for Plastics Users
by Michel Biron
Butterworth-Heinemann © 2007 (919 pages) Citation
ISBN:9781856174787
Illustrated with figures, tables and graphs, this book offers detailed accounts of thermoplastics, including economic and technological elements, and provides a quick and pragmatic approach to selecting thermoplastics for the non-specialist plastics user.
3)Fluoroelastomers Handbook: The Definitive User's Guide and Databook
by Albert L. Moore
William Andrew © 2006 (377 pages) Citation
ISBN:9780815515173
Describing the nature of fluoroelastomers, properties of various compositions, developmental history, and major uses, this book is a comprehensive reference on fluoroelastomer chemistry, processing technology, and applications.
3)Adhesion to Fluoropolymers
by Derek M. Brewis and Ralf H. Dahm
Smithers Rapra © 2006 (136 pages) Citation
ISBN:9781859575246
Of interest to those who already use fluoropolymers and those who are considering using them, this book is mainly concerned with the wide variety of methods available to pretreat fluoropolymers.
4)Polymer Reference Book
by T. R. Crompton
Smithers Rapra © 2006 (726 pages) Citation
ISBN:9781859575260
Covering all aspects of the techniques used in the examination of polymers, this book describes the types of techniques now available to the polymer chemist and technician, and discusses their capabilities, limitations and applications
by Walther Grot
William Andrew © 2008 (253 pages) Citation
ISBN:9780815515418
Authored by the inventor of the first commercial product known as Nafion (DuPont), this book emphasizes the practical aspects of working with fluorinated ionomers, and helps readers with the preparation, fabrication, use and study of these products.
2) Thermoplastics and Thermoplastic Composites: Technical Information for Plastics Users
by Michel Biron
Butterworth-Heinemann © 2007 (919 pages) Citation
ISBN:9781856174787
Illustrated with figures, tables and graphs, this book offers detailed accounts of thermoplastics, including economic and technological elements, and provides a quick and pragmatic approach to selecting thermoplastics for the non-specialist plastics user.
3)Fluoroelastomers Handbook: The Definitive User's Guide and Databook
by Albert L. Moore
William Andrew © 2006 (377 pages) Citation
ISBN:9780815515173
Describing the nature of fluoroelastomers, properties of various compositions, developmental history, and major uses, this book is a comprehensive reference on fluoroelastomer chemistry, processing technology, and applications.
3)Adhesion to Fluoropolymers
by Derek M. Brewis and Ralf H. Dahm
Smithers Rapra © 2006 (136 pages) Citation
ISBN:9781859575246
Of interest to those who already use fluoropolymers and those who are considering using them, this book is mainly concerned with the wide variety of methods available to pretreat fluoropolymers.
4)Polymer Reference Book
by T. R. Crompton
Smithers Rapra © 2006 (726 pages) Citation
ISBN:9781859575260
Covering all aspects of the techniques used in the examination of polymers, this book describes the types of techniques now available to the polymer chemist and technician, and discusses their capabilities, limitations and applications
Wednesday, January 20, 2010
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
Widely used thermoplastic material eg beverage bottles, and food trays for microwave.
PET are made from ethylene glycol and either terephthalic acid or dimethyl ester of terephthalic acid .
Most uses for PET requires the material molecular structure to be oriented. Orientation of PET will significantly increased the tensile strength and reduces gas permeability and water vapor transimission.
PET is processed by blow moulding and sheet extrusion
typical trade name:
-Cleartuf, Traytuf (goodyear tire and co)
-melinar( ICI america)
-Tenite, Kodapak(eastman )
-selar( du pont)
crisper, a synthetic paper of Toyobo of sanyo is pearlescent PET film having excellent printability and good wear and UV resistance
Spectar PETG, of eastman chemical products is an extruable copolyester for thick (0.5'') sheet. Impact strength is superior to acrylic
Rynite CR, of Du pont contain non metallic conductive ingredients for superior electrical and thermal conductivity, heat dissipation and electronmagnetic shielding.
PET are made from ethylene glycol and either terephthalic acid or dimethyl ester of terephthalic acid .
Most uses for PET requires the material molecular structure to be oriented. Orientation of PET will significantly increased the tensile strength and reduces gas permeability and water vapor transimission.
PET is processed by blow moulding and sheet extrusion
typical trade name:
-Cleartuf, Traytuf (goodyear tire and co)
-melinar( ICI america)
-Tenite, Kodapak(eastman )
-selar( du pont)
crisper, a synthetic paper of Toyobo of sanyo is pearlescent PET film having excellent printability and good wear and UV resistance
Spectar PETG, of eastman chemical products is an extruable copolyester for thick (0.5'') sheet. Impact strength is superior to acrylic
Rynite CR, of Du pont contain non metallic conductive ingredients for superior electrical and thermal conductivity, heat dissipation and electronmagnetic shielding.
Surface Preparation of adherends
Thermoplastics includes: polyolefins, liner polyester, fluropolymers.
Methods used to improve the bonding characteristic includes:
This fluropolymer has excellent chemical resistance , its surface is difficult to prepare due to its high surface tension and non polar condition.
-wipe with acetone
-treat with sodium naphthalene(commercially avaliable) complex for 15min at room temperature
when used with sodium naphthalene , should be kept tightly stopped glass container to exclude air and moisture
-remove from solution with tongs
-wash with acetone to remove excess organic material
-wash with distilled water to remove last trace of metallic saltsfrom the treated surfaces
-dry in an air circulation oven 37c +/- 3c for 1hour
EVA, Ethylene vinyl acetate
SIRA methods
-degrease in methanol
-prime with epoxy adhesive
-fuse into the surface by heating for 30mins at 100C
The basic building for polyethylene are H and C atoms, these carbon are combined to form ethylene monomer, C2H2, in polymerisation process, the double bond C=C are broken , under the right condition these bonds rebond to form with other
FEP, Fluorinated ethylene propylene copolymer
supplied by du pont company as Teflon FEP, it is a thermoplastic and is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and hexafluoropropylene. FEP can be heat sealed , heat bonded, laminated and combined with many materials. can be used as a hot melt adhesive
surface preparation is the same as E-CTFE.
Methods used to improve the bonding characteristic includes:
- oxidation by means of chemical or flame treatment ( former is more commonly used)
- electrical discharge to leave a more reactive surface
- ionised inert gas , whick strengthen the surface by crosslinking and leaves it more reactive (read more on activated gas surface treatment of polymer
- metal ion treatment
Ethylene chlorotrifluorethylene copolymer (E-CTFE) (HALAR-allied corporation)
This fluropolymer has excellent chemical resistance , its surface is difficult to prepare due to its high surface tension and non polar condition.
-wipe with acetone
-treat with sodium naphthalene(commercially avaliable) complex for 15min at room temperature
when used with sodium naphthalene , should be kept tightly stopped glass container to exclude air and moisture
-remove from solution with tongs
-wash with acetone to remove excess organic material
-wash with distilled water to remove last trace of metallic saltsfrom the treated surfaces
-dry in an air circulation oven 37c +/- 3c for 1hour
EVA, Ethylene vinyl acetate
SIRA methods
-degrease in methanol
-prime with epoxy adhesive
-fuse into the surface by heating for 30mins at 100C
The basic building for polyethylene are H and C atoms, these carbon are combined to form ethylene monomer, C2H2, in polymerisation process, the double bond C=C are broken , under the right condition these bonds rebond to form with other
FEP, Fluorinated ethylene propylene copolymer
supplied by du pont company as Teflon FEP, it is a thermoplastic and is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and hexafluoropropylene. FEP can be heat sealed , heat bonded, laminated and combined with many materials. can be used as a hot melt adhesive
surface preparation is the same as E-CTFE.
Thursday, January 14, 2010
3M Expands Scotchshield Manufacturing
3M Expands Scotchshield Manufacturing
Minnesota, United States [RenewableEnergyWorld.com]
3M announced completion of expanded manufacturing capacity for 3M Scotchshield Film, a solar film used in the manufacturing of crystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) modules. Built in response to accelerating customer demand, the expansion, located in Singapore, is dedicated solely to manufacturing Scotchshield.
3M's Renewable Energy Division is composed of two key business units: Energy Generation and Energy Management.
“3M draws upon decades of experience producing similar materials for other industries and applies this heritage to our line of renewable energy products,” said Scott Norquist, manager of Energy Generation for the 3M Renewable Energy Division. “This manufacturing expansion confirms 3M’s commitment to providing tried and true technologies for renewable energy and demonstrates our ability to swiftly respond to the shifting marketplace and customer demands.”
3M’s Renewable Energy Division is composed of two key business units: Energy Generation and Energy Management. These focus areas encompass new and existing technologies for solar and wind energy, geothermal and biofuel products that all draw upon 3M’s deep background in cost-saving advanced materials technologies, the company said.
3M Expands Scotchshield Manufacturing
3M Renewable Energy
Minnesota, United States [RenewableEnergyWorld.com]
3M announced completion of expanded manufacturing capacity for 3M Scotchshield Film, a solar film used in the manufacturing of crystalline silicon photovoltaic (PV) modules. Built in response to accelerating customer demand, the expansion, located in Singapore, is dedicated solely to manufacturing Scotchshield.
3M's Renewable Energy Division is composed of two key business units: Energy Generation and Energy Management.
“3M draws upon decades of experience producing similar materials for other industries and applies this heritage to our line of renewable energy products,” said Scott Norquist, manager of Energy Generation for the 3M Renewable Energy Division. “This manufacturing expansion confirms 3M’s commitment to providing tried and true technologies for renewable energy and demonstrates our ability to swiftly respond to the shifting marketplace and customer demands.”
3M’s Renewable Energy Division is composed of two key business units: Energy Generation and Energy Management. These focus areas encompass new and existing technologies for solar and wind energy, geothermal and biofuel products that all draw upon 3M’s deep background in cost-saving advanced materials technologies, the company said.
3M Expands Scotchshield Manufacturing
3M Renewable Energy
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